2.
  -2024
   
      
(1849-1947 . )
 :      :50
:     -    ,            
              
 -
1.  -         
2.            
 -
3.             
4.       ,     '      
 
 -
5.      ,          
6.             
2.
-
7.            
8.                    

  -2024
   
      
(1849-1947 . )
 :      :50
:     -    ,            
              
 -
1.  -         
: 
    (1839):   ,     
   ,  ,     () 
      
    :  ,        
  ,         ( ) 

 
2.
  :          '   
              ,  
     
 :  -       
      ,        
             
 -  (1845)    1846)
   1845      1846        
  
1.   ( 1845)
 ,        ' ,    
   
     ,        
2.     (18  1845)
  
     ,        
      ,      
3.      (21-22  1845)
       
 ,      ,    
  ,             
   
      ,     '
4.      (28  1846)
   
          
           
5.      (10  1846)
   
         
              , 
 -  
2.
    ,           
  
         
 -   
     ( 1846)        
1.    
     ,     (  
  )   
 ,     ,      75 
   
2.     
        
 ,     
  
          ( )
 
      
3.      
        
        
   ,     ,      
 
4.     
 ,   ,     
      ,    
    
     
5.  -   
     

         
   , 1848 ,  -    ,    1849
       
2.
   
                
              -  
     - ,    -       
    

 -  (1845-46)     
;     
 
       ,      
       
            
               
                  
         ,      
           
2.            
:      
 
     ,  19
        
   ,      ,   ,   
     ,             
              
,        ,        
;      ,  ,     
     
     ,        
       ,       
    ,          - , 
        ,      ,
      -    ',     -   ,
1849          
      :       
2.
    
  ,         ,
 "  "              
     ,  ,      
           ,      
    ,           
  (1799-1839) ,      ,     
   ,           '     
        (1809) '  ,      
           
   1839        ""  ,    
     
    :  -  
              -    
                 , 
    
    ,     
  
              
     ,          
  ,   ,         
 ,      ,          
    ,  ,       
              
,     -  
         :   ,   
     
 -  (1845-46)
   1845     ,        
   ,    ',          
      ,          
  
 -       
     
,                
          ,   
2.
     (1846)      :
      (     )  
     
     ( )  ,   
      
        
      
   ,      '  ,   ,  
               
'  ,          ,     
      
                
  ,      ,        
   ',        
-  (1848-49)
     1848 ,     ,   
                 
     ,          ,  
     
        -      ,  
   ,          
 (1849)        ,  
  ,        ,   
 (1849)       
    ,        
   (1849)
 1849 ,   -,      '    
      ,          
,       
                ,
 -- ,           
2.
     ,         , 
          
  
?
     ,    :       
     
 ?   :
1.               

2.  - , ,           
 
3.   -             
4.  -    -    ,  
   
5.               
  
        
;        :
  :    ,    
  :         ,   
      1857        

  :           

   :  , ,    ,    

  :  ,      ,    
 
   
          
      
                
       ,    ,      
          
 -   , 
       -- 
2.
 -
3.             
:       
1.    
  ,         
  ',             
   ,        

          ,   
  
          ,    
 

:      '         
  
2.    
     , ,      
   
           '   

           '   


:           '  , 
   ,        
3.  
             

         (     ,
 )
  -        
       ,      
 
2.

:     ,         
         
4.      
     ,    ()    
       ,       
             

:      ,       
  
5.       
 ',        -
 ,  , ,    -     
  
   
 -    
      
           ,   
     
1.     
       :    ,   
 ,     
  ,   ,    
   -    
  

:    -         

2.     
  ,       '     


    :           

        ,     
  '  
  

:   '   ,      
2.
3.     
    ,     
     
 -        
      
 ,            


:       ,     
4. -     
      :  ,  ,  
           
          
5.          
             
  
     "  "  "   "  

:         
   
  :
              
              
 '    
   ,        (1907)  
 
 :
   ,       
          
         
   
       ,       - ,
,      -  -    
   
(, )        -    -  , 
2.
          ,         '
 

             : 

 ,    ,    ,  
          ,  
,       
 ,          
,             
  
   :        -     ,
   ;   ,    
             ,  
 '   ,         
4.       ,     '      
 
:      ,     '    
 
:   
19
                  , 
      ,            
      
         
    , ,      
  ,      1849      
,             -    
  ""  ,  ,       
            
    
  ,   ,           
   
2.
         --  
 
    ,    ,    ' -
1.        
 
 ,        - ,    -  
, ,            - ,
 ,              
  
          
 
    (1849):         
         ""   

1854   ( ):      

            
  '  
     
         -,  
   
     , ,       -,
         
     
        '    ' ,   
                 
  -     
   
     (      )  
  
19
   ,        ,   
     
 ,         ,        
,    ,          
2.
2.       
-    ,           
  
   
            
   ,      '  
  -          
 
   
   -, , ,       

            
 
  
       :
       ,  -    '
 
        ,       
    
   
     
;        
 
 ,             
        
   
    -   - , ,  
 -              

 ,           ,    ,
  ,  
2.
3.      
 
   -    -  
       
   
  
    ,  (1864)   ,     
 
       (1864)   ,  
    
   (1886)       ,  

            
   ,  (1892),        
         
  
      ,  (1882)    
     '         
 
     ,   ,  
   
    
  , ,  , ,     
         -     
   
 ,    '      19
    20
 
 ,      :
      ,   (1913)    
             

  
       - , , ,  
 
2.
 -       ( ,  , 
)           
 
4.     
     ,      
:
 :     ;      
      :       
-:         
    
   :  ,         
 
5.          
1947       ,         
      :
          '  
           
 
 ,      ,   
  
         ,         
,     ,        
                


                
   ,         ,  
,            , 
          
2.
    ,            
       ,  ,     
          
 -
5.      ,          
: 󷊆󷊇     
1.   
1849      ,       
  
     ,      ,     
     
 ,  ,        
  ,  -          

2.     (1816-1885)
  ( )          
      ,         
    
1857 ,    ,      '    

3. “    
?
     
     ()   '  

      
   ,       , 
   ""    
 ,             , 
           
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼      
2.
                
 ,     ,   -   
1.   
           
     ,     
 -      
2.  
, ,      

      
    
3.      
     
     --  -  
  -         
4.    
      ( )
      
 (     )   
5.   -
   ,           
             

        
6.      
       ,       

     
      ,       
  
󷡉󷡊󷡋󷡌󷡍󷡎      
2.
         ,   
       
1.       
               
  
 ,  ,        
 
       
2.  -
  ,       

    '   ,      ' 

3.    
              
               
            

4.    
1872 ,            
 '  
       :   65    
 
             
     
5.       
,    '          
'  
            ,   
     
󼩺󼩻   
              
  - ,            
2.
,           
   
  ,          ,    
 ,               

󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘
            -   
:
   (      ),
   (, ,      ),
 (       ), 
   (   )
     
         
      ,         
                
   
       ,       
 -       ,   , 
       
      
   
;  ,   ,  ,      
          
6.             
:         
 
      ,  
    
,      ,        
       -        -    
,
   ,    ,         
   ,            
,   ,        
       ,   ,   20
   
    ,        
 
2.
   
20
   ,             
,  ,           ,  ,  
            
     ,     ,       

       
  ,      
 - 
  
 ,     -  ,    ,   
       ,        
            ,    
     
    
         , 
       ,         
     
,        , 
 ,           :   
 ,       ,   -     
,          ,         
   
                
    
:    
  1913                
  ""     ""  ""     

 -     ,       ' ,  
      
             ,  
,               
    ,          
 
        
            , "" ,  
    - , , ,          
'  
 -       ,    , 
             ,   
   
        , , 
2.
                , 
    
   
?
,    :          
?  
        ,         
   ,  ,           
    ,       -      
   
 ,           ,   
          ,     -  

   
1914     ,           
             ,  
           ,     
  

 ,              
 ,            :  
   ,    
,   ,   
             
 ,         : "   !
 !  !"
      
      1857        
                 
             
,    19   ,        
2.
,               
 ,   ,          ,
   ,             
 1915 ,     '       
     ,          
           
 :    
         
   ,    
          , 
          ,    
          
         ,    
              
 ,       ,      
            
 ,  
             
    
         
 ,   
 
1.            ,  
          
2.             
            
3.              
,       , -     

4.        
   
(HSRA)     
     
      
2.
 
   ,           
 
   -   ,        , 
         
              
 , 
   ,              
 ,          


         
      

,                  ,
      ,       '   
     
       
 - 
                  
    
,           
       
-
7.            
:     
1.        
18
 19
 ,         
   
     
 ,     , 
    ,        
  
      ,  ,    '   
2.  
1849       ,      
 
      
2.
        ,   
       
3.        
19
         ,     
     
             
            
 , 1920     ,         
 
1.     ....
1920 ,          ()
  
 ,   ,        
 
  ,           

2.    ()
   ()         
,       
      :   
,   ,  
    
3.    
      (1921):       ',    
    '        
               
    (1922):        
          ,     
           
  (1923–25):        ,   
         ,  
   
 
4.     ' 
2.
        ,     
,  
    ,         
     
        
     
     ,           
1.   
              
1925 ,     ,   SGPC   
   '     
          
2.      
          
            

3.        
            
         
            
4.    
              

            

5.    
      '     
  ,         
      
 ,     

6.     
2.
     ,      -
 
              
 
   
         ,   (,
,  )   '         
-  -     ,      ,     
       

   (1920)          
   
              
          
 ,      
,   
      
              
          
 ,      
        
 
 -     ,     -   
      ,           , 
              
  
8.                    

:               
       ,   ,      
   ,                  
       -             
             ,  
2.
       ,   ,       
    
       
      
 -             "--" 
 :        
    28  1907   (  )    
                 
   -           
    ,         

         ,    ,    
             ,
     
 -     ,    
      ,          
,          ,     "  
    "  -          

:          
1919       
,          
 ,            
   ,            12   ,  
 ,             
 
  ,              
,              ,   
 
 -  ,       
 :      
                
1920      ,     ,   
2.
         ,     ,   
             , 
      (  )     
,         1922      ,  
                
               
              
 :      
-     ,           
    , ,      
         '      
  
      (HRA)    ,    
          ,   , 
         (HSRA)  , 
         
       
 -         
          
 ,     
      
  :        
1928 ,    ,   ,         
 ,           ,    ,
              ,
   '    ,         
  ,     
                  
       ,      , 
      .       ,
   ,           
2.
        ,       
"          "   - ,
          
  :    
            
    
    1929 ,        
      ,          
      
          
        
  : "    

,     
 '   "
   ,   
  ,   " !" (
)               ,
         
  :    
                
    ,       
       ,   "  
"  "
 ",        ,       
  
  ,     
,       
            ,    
  
  :  
            (   ) 
   '  ,       ,   
     
23  1931 ,  23    ,  ,     , 
                 , 
2.
         ,    
 -   
  
  :         
     -           ?
1.                
            
        
2.          ,    
 
 -          
3.          ,   
              
  
4.           
 " " 
          
 :   
   23  
 ,           
     
,            , 
 ,               
    
    ,     
  
           - ,     
    ,          ,  
                   
         , "    ' 
;  
       "
"                  

          ,           "